The Cultural Dimension “Individualism-Collectivism” as the Main Tool for Analyzing the Similarities and Differences of Cultures
Keywords:
cultural dimensions, individualism, collectivism, social ecology, cross-cultural research, ecocultural framework
Abstract
The paper presents an analytical review of the current state of research into the similarities and differences between cultures through the use of cultural dimensions, with a special focus on the primary dichotomy for this purpose — Individualism-Collectivism (IND-COL). Specifically, we elucidate why, according to recent studies, a two-dimensional model is deemed sufficient for analyzing these similarities and differences, while the IND-COL dichotomy emerges as the principal assessment tool. Furthermore, we offer a conceptual analysis of the classic models of cultural dimensions (G. Hofstede, R. Inglehart, Sh. Schwartz) pertaining to IND-COL, analyzing both the consensus and discrepancies between them, as well as addressing third-party criticisms. After outlining the key attributes of IND-COL, we examine the current understanding of the role socioecological factors play in shaping either pole. Besides the main objective of a comprehensive analysis of the cultural dimension of IND-COL, we aim to draw attention to the somewhat overlooked model of H. Triandis concerning the horizontal/vertical IND-COL. Given that it has not yet been adequately tested at the cultural level, we highlight its primary advantages. In concluding this work, we focus on the challenge of analyzing at different levels (individual, subcultural, national) and propose that further progress in this field necessitates a broader application of multilevel modeling.
References
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Green E.G., Deschamps J.C., Paez D. (2005) Variation of individualism and collectivism within and between 20 countries: A typological analysis. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 36(3): 321–339.
Grigoryev D. (2022). Ethnic stereotype content beyond intergroup relations within societies: Exploring the North-South hypothesis for competence and warmth. Cross-Cultural Research, 56(4): 345–384.
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Hofstede G. (2011) Dimensionalizing cultures: The Hofstede model in context. Online Readings in Psychology & Culture, 2(1): 1−26.
House R.J., Javidan M. (2004) Overview of GLOBE. In: R.J. House, P.J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P.W. Dorfman, V. Gupta (Eds.), Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. L.: Sage: 9−28.
Hruschka D.J., Hackman J. (2014) When are cross-group differences a product of a human behavioral immune system? Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences, 8(4): 265–273.
Inglehart R.F. (1997) Modernization and postmodernization: Cultural, economic and political change in 43 societies. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Inglehart R.F. (2018) Cultural evolution. Peoples motivations are changing and reshaping world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Inglehart R.F., Baker W.E. (2000) Modernization, cultural change, and the persistence of traditional values. American Sociological Review, 65(1): 19–51.
Inglehart R.F., Oyserman D. (2004) Individualism, autonomy, and self-expression. The human development syndrome. In: H. Vinken, J. Soeters, P. Ester (eds), Comparing cultures: Dimensions of culture in a comparative perspective. Boston, MA: Brill: 74–96.
Kaasa A. (2021) Merging Hofstede, Schwartz, and Inglehart into a single system. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 52(4): 339–353.
Kaasa A., Minkov M. (2022) Are different two-dimensional models of culture just a matter of different rotations? Evidence from the analysis based on the WVS/EVS. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 53(2): 127–156.
Kaasa A., Welzel C. (2023) Elements of Schwartz’s model in the WVS: How do they relate to other cultural models? Cross-Cultural Research, 1−41.
Kemmelmeier M. (2016) Cultural differences in survey responding: Issues and insights in the study of response biases. International Journal of Psychology, 51(6): 439−444.
Krys K., Uchida Y., Oishi S., Diener E. (2019) Open society fosters satisfaction: Explanation to why individualism associates with country level measures of satisfaction. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 14(6): 768−778.
Krys K., Vignoles V.L., de Almeida I., Uchida Y. (2022) Outside the “cultural binary”: Understanding why Latin American collectivist societies foster independent selves. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 17(4): 1166–1187.
Kusserow A.S. (1999) De‐homogenizing American individualism: Socializing hard and soft individualism in Manhattan and Queens. Ethos, 27(2): 210–234.
Laitin D.D., Moortgat J., Robinson A.L. (2012) Geographic axes and the persistence of cultural diversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109: 10263–10268.
León F.R. (2023а) Electromagnetic and climatic foundations of human aggression. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 89: 1–9.
León F.R. (2023б). Likely electromagnetic foundations of gender inequality. Cross-Cultural Research, 57(2–3): 239–263.
Li L.M.W., Bond M.H. (2010) Value change: Analyzing national change in citizen secularism across four time periods in the World Values Survey. The Social Science Journal. 47(2): 294–306.
Maleki A., de Jong M. (2014) A proposal for clustering the dimensions of national culture. Cross-Cultural Research, 48: 107–143.
Markus H., Kitayama S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98: 224–253.
Minkov M. (2014) The K factor, societal hypometropia, and national values: A study of 71 nations. Personality and Individual Differences, 66: 153–159.
Minkov M., Bond M.H. (2015) Genetic polymorphisms predict national differences in life history strategy and time orientation. Personality and Individual Differences, 76: 204–215.
Minkov M. (2018) A revision of Hofstede’s model of national culture: Old evidence and new data from 56 countries. Cross Cultural & Strategic Management, 25(2): 231–256.
Minkov M., Kaasa A. (2021) A test of the revised Minkov-Hofstede model of culture: Mirror images of subjective and objective culture across nations and the 50 US states. Cross-Cultural Research, 55(2–3): 230–281.
Minkov M., Kaasa A. (2022) Do dimensions of culture exist objectively? A validation of the revised Minkov-Hofstede model of culture with World Values Survey items and scores for 102 countries. Journal of International Management, 28(4): 1–17.
Minkov M., Bond M.H., Dutt P., Schachner M., Morales O., Sanchez C., ... Mudd B. (2018) A reconsideration of Hofstede’s fifth dimension: New flexibility vs. monumentalism data from 54 countries. Cross-Cultural Research, 52(3): 309–333.
Minkov M., Dutt P., Schachner M., Morales O., Sanchez C., Jandosova J., ... Mudd B. (2017) A revision of Hofstede's individualism-collectivism dimension: A new national index from a 56-country study. Cross Cultural & Strategic Management, 24(3): 386–404.
Oishi S. (2014) Socioecological psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 65(1): 581–609.
Oyserman D., Uskul A.K. (2008) Individualism and collectivism: Societal-level processes with implications for individual-level and society-level outcomes. In: F. van de Vijver, D. van Hemert, Y. Poortinga (eds) Multilevel analysis of individuals and cultures. Mahwah, N.J: Erlbaum: 145–173.
Rentfrow P.J., Jokela M. (2016) Geographical psychology: The spatial organization of psychological phenomena. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25(6): 393–398.
Shapouri S. (2022) Of germs and culture; parasite stress as the origin of individualism-collectivism. Evolutionary Psychological Science, 9: 82–89.
Singelis T.M., Triandis H.C., Bhawuk D.P., Gelfand M.J. (1995) Horizontal and vertical dimensions of individualism and collectivism: A theoretical and measurement refinement. Cross-Cultural Research, 29(3): 240–275.
Schwartz S.H. (1994а) Beyond individualism/collectivism: New cultural dimensions of values. In: U. Kim, H.C. Triandis, Ç. Kâğitçibaşi, S.-C. Choi, G. Yoon (eds), Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and applications. London: Sage Publications: 85–119.
Schwartz S.H. (1994б). Are there universal aspects in the structure and contents of human values? Journal of Social Issues, 50(4): 19–45.
Schwartz S.H. (2004) Mapping and interpreting cultural differences. In: H. Vinken, J. Soeters, P. Ester (eds). Comparing cultures: Dimensions of culture in a comparative perspective. Brill: 43–73.
Schwartz S.H. (2006) A theory of cultural value orientations: Explication and applications. Comparative Sociology, 5(2–3): 137–182.
Schwartz S.H. (2014) Rethinking the concept and measurement of societal culture in light of empirical findings. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45(1): 5–13.
Sng O., Neuberg S.L., Varnum M.E.W., Kenrick D.T. (2018) The behavioral ecology of cultural psychological variation. Psychological Review, 125(5): 714–743.
Stieger S., Götz F.M., Wilson C., Volsa S., Rentfrow P.J. (2022) A tale of peaks and valleys: Sinusoid relationship patterns between mountainousness and basic human values. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 13(2): 390–402.
Tomasello M., Melis A.P., Tennie C., Wyman E., Herrmann E. (2012) Two key steps in the evolution of human cooperation: The interdependence hypothesis. Current Anthropology, 53(6): 673–692.
Triandis H.C. (1993) Collectivism and individualism as cultural syndromes. Cross-Cultural Research, 27(3–4), 155–180.
Triandis H.C. (1996) The psychological measurement of cultural syndromes. American Psychologist, 51(4): 407–415.
Triandis H.C., Gelfand M.J. (1998) Converging measurement of horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1): 118–128.
van de Vliert E. (2020) The global ecology of differentiation between us and them. Nature Human Behaviour, 4(3): 270–278.
van de Vliert E., Conway L.G. III (2019) Northerners and Southerners differ in conflict culture. Negotiation and Conflict Management Research, 12: 256–277.
van de Vliert E., Postmes T. (2012) Climato-economic livability predicts societal collectivism and political autocracy better than parasitic stress does. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 35(2): 94–95.
van de Vliert E., van Lange P.A.M. (2019) Latitudinal psychology: An ecological perspective on creativity, aggression, happiness, and beyond. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 14(5): 860–884.
Vignoles V. (2018) The “common view”, the “cultural binary”, and how to move forward. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 21(4): 336–345.
Voronov M., Singer J.A. (2002) The myth of individualism-collectivism: A critical review. The Journal of Social Psychology, 142(4): 461–480.
Берри Дж.У. (2019) Экокультурная психология. Пер. с англ. Д.С. Григорьев. Культурно-историческая психология, 15(4): 4–16.
Вельцель К. (2018) Рождение свободы. М.: ВЦИОМ.
Галлямова А.А., Григорьев Д.С. (2022) Разработка методики оценки воспринимаемой культуры сообщества на основе культурной ориентации горизонтальный/вертикальный индивидуализм-коллективизм Г. Триандиса. Вестник Российского университета дружбы народов. Серия: Психология и педагогика, 19(3): 429–447.
Даймонд Д. (2010) Ружья, микробы и сталь. Пер. с англ. М. Колопотина. М.: АСТ.
Лебедева Н.М., Татарко А.Н. (2019) Векторы развития стран в едином пространстве культурных измерений. Психологический журнал, 40(6): 99–111.
Полтерович В.М. (2022) Конкуренция, сотрудничество и удовлетворенность жизнью. Часть 1. Семерка европейских лидеров. Экономические и социальные перемены: факты, тенденции, прогноз, 15(2): 31–43.
Хофстеде Г., МакКрэй Р.Р. (2010) Возвращаясь к обсуждению личности и культуры: связь личностных черт и культурных осей. Пер. с англ.: В.В. Солодников. Социологический журнал, 4: 9–41.
Akaliyski P., Welzel C., Bond M.H., Minkov M. (2021) On “nationology”: The gravitational field of national culture. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 52(8–9): 771–793.
Akkuş B., Postmes T., Stroebe K. (2017) Community Collectivism: A social dynamic approach to conceptualizing culture. PLOS ONE, 12(9): 1–29.
Beugelsdijk S., Welzel C. (2018) Dimensions and dynamics of national culture: Synthesizing Hofstede with Inglehart. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 49(10): 1469−1505.
Bond M.H., Leung K., Au A., Tong K.-K., De Carrasquel S.R., Murakami F., … Lewis J.R. (2004) Culture-level dimensions of social axioms and their correlates across 41 cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35(5): 548–570.
Brewer M.B., Chen Y.-R. (2007) Where (who) are collectives in collectivism? Toward conceptual clarification of individualism and collectivism. Psychological Review, 114(1): 133–151.
Conway L.G. III, Bongard K., Plaut V., Gornick L.J., Dodds D.P., Giresi T., … Houck S.C. (2017) Ecological origins of freedom: Pathogens, heat stress, and frontier topography predict more vertical but less horizontal governmental restriction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 43(10): 1378–1398.
Fog A. (2021) A test of the reproducibility of the clustering of cultural variables. Cross-Cultural Research, 55(1): 29–57.
Fog A. (2023а) Psychological and cultural effects of different kinds of danger. An exploration based on survey data from 79 countries. Culture and Evolution: 1–22.
Fog A. (2023б) Two-dimensional models of cultural differences: Statistical and theoretical analysis. Cross-Cultural Research, 57(2–3): 115–165.
Green E.G., Deschamps J.C., Paez D. (2005) Variation of individualism and collectivism within and between 20 countries: A typological analysis. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 36(3): 321–339.
Grigoryev D. (2022). Ethnic stereotype content beyond intergroup relations within societies: Exploring the North-South hypothesis for competence and warmth. Cross-Cultural Research, 56(4): 345–384.
Gurven M.D. (2018) Broadening horizons: Sample diversity and socioecological theory are essential to the future of psychological science. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(45): 11420–11427.
Hofstede G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. L.: Sage.
Hofstede G. (2001) Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations. L.: Sage.
Hofstede G. (2011) Dimensionalizing cultures: The Hofstede model in context. Online Readings in Psychology & Culture, 2(1): 1−26.
House R.J., Javidan M. (2004) Overview of GLOBE. In: R.J. House, P.J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P.W. Dorfman, V. Gupta (Eds.), Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. L.: Sage: 9−28.
Hruschka D.J., Hackman J. (2014) When are cross-group differences a product of a human behavioral immune system? Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences, 8(4): 265–273.
Inglehart R.F. (1997) Modernization and postmodernization: Cultural, economic and political change in 43 societies. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Inglehart R.F. (2018) Cultural evolution. Peoples motivations are changing and reshaping world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Inglehart R.F., Baker W.E. (2000) Modernization, cultural change, and the persistence of traditional values. American Sociological Review, 65(1): 19–51.
Inglehart R.F., Oyserman D. (2004) Individualism, autonomy, and self-expression. The human development syndrome. In: H. Vinken, J. Soeters, P. Ester (eds), Comparing cultures: Dimensions of culture in a comparative perspective. Boston, MA: Brill: 74–96.
Kaasa A. (2021) Merging Hofstede, Schwartz, and Inglehart into a single system. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 52(4): 339–353.
Kaasa A., Minkov M. (2022) Are different two-dimensional models of culture just a matter of different rotations? Evidence from the analysis based on the WVS/EVS. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 53(2): 127–156.
Kaasa A., Welzel C. (2023) Elements of Schwartz’s model in the WVS: How do they relate to other cultural models? Cross-Cultural Research, 1−41.
Kemmelmeier M. (2016) Cultural differences in survey responding: Issues and insights in the study of response biases. International Journal of Psychology, 51(6): 439−444.
Krys K., Uchida Y., Oishi S., Diener E. (2019) Open society fosters satisfaction: Explanation to why individualism associates with country level measures of satisfaction. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 14(6): 768−778.
Krys K., Vignoles V.L., de Almeida I., Uchida Y. (2022) Outside the “cultural binary”: Understanding why Latin American collectivist societies foster independent selves. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 17(4): 1166–1187.
Kusserow A.S. (1999) De‐homogenizing American individualism: Socializing hard and soft individualism in Manhattan and Queens. Ethos, 27(2): 210–234.
Laitin D.D., Moortgat J., Robinson A.L. (2012) Geographic axes and the persistence of cultural diversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109: 10263–10268.
León F.R. (2023а) Electromagnetic and climatic foundations of human aggression. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 89: 1–9.
León F.R. (2023б). Likely electromagnetic foundations of gender inequality. Cross-Cultural Research, 57(2–3): 239–263.
Li L.M.W., Bond M.H. (2010) Value change: Analyzing national change in citizen secularism across four time periods in the World Values Survey. The Social Science Journal. 47(2): 294–306.
Maleki A., de Jong M. (2014) A proposal for clustering the dimensions of national culture. Cross-Cultural Research, 48: 107–143.
Markus H., Kitayama S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98: 224–253.
Minkov M. (2014) The K factor, societal hypometropia, and national values: A study of 71 nations. Personality and Individual Differences, 66: 153–159.
Minkov M., Bond M.H. (2015) Genetic polymorphisms predict national differences in life history strategy and time orientation. Personality and Individual Differences, 76: 204–215.
Minkov M. (2018) A revision of Hofstede’s model of national culture: Old evidence and new data from 56 countries. Cross Cultural & Strategic Management, 25(2): 231–256.
Minkov M., Kaasa A. (2021) A test of the revised Minkov-Hofstede model of culture: Mirror images of subjective and objective culture across nations and the 50 US states. Cross-Cultural Research, 55(2–3): 230–281.
Minkov M., Kaasa A. (2022) Do dimensions of culture exist objectively? A validation of the revised Minkov-Hofstede model of culture with World Values Survey items and scores for 102 countries. Journal of International Management, 28(4): 1–17.
Minkov M., Bond M.H., Dutt P., Schachner M., Morales O., Sanchez C., ... Mudd B. (2018) A reconsideration of Hofstede’s fifth dimension: New flexibility vs. monumentalism data from 54 countries. Cross-Cultural Research, 52(3): 309–333.
Minkov M., Dutt P., Schachner M., Morales O., Sanchez C., Jandosova J., ... Mudd B. (2017) A revision of Hofstede's individualism-collectivism dimension: A new national index from a 56-country study. Cross Cultural & Strategic Management, 24(3): 386–404.
Oishi S. (2014) Socioecological psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 65(1): 581–609.
Oyserman D., Uskul A.K. (2008) Individualism and collectivism: Societal-level processes with implications for individual-level and society-level outcomes. In: F. van de Vijver, D. van Hemert, Y. Poortinga (eds) Multilevel analysis of individuals and cultures. Mahwah, N.J: Erlbaum: 145–173.
Rentfrow P.J., Jokela M. (2016) Geographical psychology: The spatial organization of psychological phenomena. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25(6): 393–398.
Shapouri S. (2022) Of germs and culture; parasite stress as the origin of individualism-collectivism. Evolutionary Psychological Science, 9: 82–89.
Singelis T.M., Triandis H.C., Bhawuk D.P., Gelfand M.J. (1995) Horizontal and vertical dimensions of individualism and collectivism: A theoretical and measurement refinement. Cross-Cultural Research, 29(3): 240–275.
Schwartz S.H. (1994а) Beyond individualism/collectivism: New cultural dimensions of values. In: U. Kim, H.C. Triandis, Ç. Kâğitçibaşi, S.-C. Choi, G. Yoon (eds), Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and applications. London: Sage Publications: 85–119.
Schwartz S.H. (1994б). Are there universal aspects in the structure and contents of human values? Journal of Social Issues, 50(4): 19–45.
Schwartz S.H. (2004) Mapping and interpreting cultural differences. In: H. Vinken, J. Soeters, P. Ester (eds). Comparing cultures: Dimensions of culture in a comparative perspective. Brill: 43–73.
Schwartz S.H. (2006) A theory of cultural value orientations: Explication and applications. Comparative Sociology, 5(2–3): 137–182.
Schwartz S.H. (2014) Rethinking the concept and measurement of societal culture in light of empirical findings. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45(1): 5–13.
Sng O., Neuberg S.L., Varnum M.E.W., Kenrick D.T. (2018) The behavioral ecology of cultural psychological variation. Psychological Review, 125(5): 714–743.
Stieger S., Götz F.M., Wilson C., Volsa S., Rentfrow P.J. (2022) A tale of peaks and valleys: Sinusoid relationship patterns between mountainousness and basic human values. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 13(2): 390–402.
Tomasello M., Melis A.P., Tennie C., Wyman E., Herrmann E. (2012) Two key steps in the evolution of human cooperation: The interdependence hypothesis. Current Anthropology, 53(6): 673–692.
Triandis H.C. (1993) Collectivism and individualism as cultural syndromes. Cross-Cultural Research, 27(3–4), 155–180.
Triandis H.C. (1996) The psychological measurement of cultural syndromes. American Psychologist, 51(4): 407–415.
Triandis H.C., Gelfand M.J. (1998) Converging measurement of horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1): 118–128.
van de Vliert E. (2020) The global ecology of differentiation between us and them. Nature Human Behaviour, 4(3): 270–278.
van de Vliert E., Conway L.G. III (2019) Northerners and Southerners differ in conflict culture. Negotiation and Conflict Management Research, 12: 256–277.
van de Vliert E., Postmes T. (2012) Climato-economic livability predicts societal collectivism and political autocracy better than parasitic stress does. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 35(2): 94–95.
van de Vliert E., van Lange P.A.M. (2019) Latitudinal psychology: An ecological perspective on creativity, aggression, happiness, and beyond. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 14(5): 860–884.
Vignoles V. (2018) The “common view”, the “cultural binary”, and how to move forward. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 21(4): 336–345.
Voronov M., Singer J.A. (2002) The myth of individualism-collectivism: A critical review. The Journal of Social Psychology, 142(4): 461–480.
Published
2023-09-21
How to Cite
Gallyamova, A., & Grigoryev, D. (2023). The Cultural Dimension “Individualism-Collectivism” as the Main Tool for Analyzing the Similarities and Differences of Cultures. ZHURNAL SOTSIOLOGII I SOTSIALNOY ANTROPOLOGII (The Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology), 26(3), 115-148. https://doi.org/10.31119/jssa.2023.26.3.5
Section
Sociology of Culture
